7 USC 2026 - Research, demonstration, and evaluations

View all text of Chapter 51 [§ 2011 - § 2036d]

§ 2026. Research, demonstration, and evaluations

(a) Contracts or grants; issuance of aggregate allotments

(1) The Secretary may enter into contracts with or make grants to public or private organizations or agencies under this section to undertake research that will help improve the administration and effectiveness of the supplemental nutrition assistance program in delivering nutrition-related benefits. The waiver authority of the Secretary under subsection (b) shall extend to all contracts and grants under this section.

(2) The Secretary may, on application, permit not more than two State agencies to establish procedures that allow households whose monthly supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits do not exceed $20, at their option, to receive, in lieu of their supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits for the initial period under section 2017 of this title and their regular allotment in following months, and at intervals of up to 3 months thereafter, aggregate allotments not to exceed $60 and covering not more than 3 months’ benefits. The allotments shall be provided in accordance with paragraphs (3) and (9) of section 2020(e) of this title (except that no household shall begin to receive combined allotments under this section until it has complied with all applicable verification requirements of section 2020(e)(3) of this title) and (with respect to the first aggregate allotment so issued) within 40 days of the last benefit issuance.

(b) Pilot projects

(1)

(A) The Secretary may conduct on a trial basis, in one or more areas of the United States, pilot or experimental projects designed to test program changes that might increase the efficiency of the supplemental nutrition assistance program and improve the delivery of supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits to eligible households, and may waive any requirement of this chapter to the extent necessary for the project to be conducted.

(B)Project requirements.—

(i)Program goal.—The Secretary may not conduct a project under subparagraph (A) unless—(I) the project is consistent with the goal of the supplemental nutrition assistance program of providing food assistance to raise levels of nutrition among low-income individuals; and(II) the project includes an evaluation to determine the effects of the project.

(ii)Permissible projects.—The Secretary may conduct a project under subparagraph (A) to—(I) improve program administration;(II) increase the self-sufficiency of supplemental nutrition assistance program recipients;(III) test innovative welfare reform strategies; or(IV) allow greater conformity with the rules of other programs than would be allowed but for this paragraph.

(iii)Restrictions on permissible projects.—If the Secretary finds that a project under subparagraph (A) would reduce benefits by more than 20 percent for more than 5 percent of households in the area subject to the project (not including any household whose benefits are reduced due to a failure to comply with work or other conduct requirements), the project—(I) may not include more than 15 percent of the number of households in the State receiving supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits; and(II) shall continue for not more than 5 years after the date of implementation, unless the Secretary approves an extension requested by the State agency at any time.

(iv)Impermissible projects.—The Secretary may not conduct a project under subparagraph (A) that—(I) involves the payment of the value of an allotment in the form of cash or otherwise providing benefits in a form not restricted to the purchase of food, unless the project was approved prior to August 22, 1996;(II) has the effect of substantially transferring funds made available under this chapter to services or benefits provided primarily through another public assistance program, or using the funds for any purpose other than the purchase of food, program administration, or an employment or training program;(III) is inconsistent with—(aa) paragraphs (4) and (5) of section 2012(m) of this title;(bb) the last sentence of section 2014(a) of this title, insofar as a waiver denies assistance to an otherwise eligible household or individual if the household or individual has not failed to comply with any work, behavioral, or other conduct requirement under this or another program;(cc)section 2014(c)(2) of this title;(dd) paragraph (2)(B), (4)(F)(i), or (4)(K) of section 2015(d) of this title;(ee)section 2017(b) of this title;(ff)section 2020(e)(2)(B) of this title;(gg) the time standard under section 2020(e)(3) of this title;(hh) subsection (a), (c), (g), (h)(1)(F), (h)(2), or (h)(3) of section 2025 of this title;(ii) this paragraph; or(jj) subsection (a)(1) or (g)(1) of section 2029 of this title;(IV) modifies the operation of section 2014 of this title so as to have the effect of—(aa) increasing the shelter deduction to households with no out-of-pocket housing costs or housing costs that consume a low percentage of the household’s income; or(bb) absolving a State from acting with reasonable promptness on substantial reported changes in income or household size (except that this subclause shall not apply with regard to changes related to supplemental nutrition assistance program deductions);(V) is not limited to a specific time period;(VI) waives a provision of section 2035 of this title; or(VII) waives a provision of section 2016(i) of this title.

(v)Additional included projects.—A pilot or experimental project may include projects involving the payment of the value of allotments or the average value of allotments by household size in the form of cash to eligible households all of whose members are age sixty-five or over or any of whose members are entitled to supplemental security income benefits under title XVI of the Social Security Act [42 U.S.C. 1381 et seq.] or are receiving assistance under a State program funded under part A of title IV of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 601 et seq.), the use of identification mechanisms that do not invade a household’s privacy, and the use of food checks or other voucher-type forms in place of EBT cards.

(vi)Cash payment pilot projects.—Subject to the availability of appropriations under section 2027(a) of this title, any pilot or experimental project implemented under this paragraph and operating as of October 1, 1981, involving the payment of the value of allotments in the form of cash to eligible households all of whose members are either age sixty-five or over or entitled to supplemental security income benefits under title XVI of the Social Security Act shall be continued if the State so requests.

(C)

(i) No waiver or demonstration program shall be approved under this chapter after November 28, 1990, unless—(I) any household whose food assistance is issued in a form other than EBT cards has its allotment increased to the extent necessary to compensate for any State or local sales tax that may be collected in all or part of the area covered by the demonstration project, the tax on purchases of food by any such household is waived, or the Secretary determines on the basis of information provided by the State agency that the increase is unnecessary on the basis of the limited nature of the items subject to the State or local sales tax; and(II) the State agency conducting the demonstration project pays the cost of any increased allotments.

(ii) Clause (i) shall not apply if a waiver or demonstration project already provides a household with assistance that exceeds that which the household would otherwise be eligible to receive by more than the estimated amount of any sales tax on the purchases of food that would be collected from the household in the project area in which the household resides.

(D)Response to waivers.—

(i)Response.—Not later than 60 days after the date of receiving a request for a waiver under subparagraph (A), the Secretary shall provide a response that—(I) approves the waiver request;(II) denies the waiver request and describes any modification needed for approval of the waiver request;(III) denies the waiver request and describes the grounds for the denial; or(IV) requests clarification of the waiver request.

(ii)Failure to respond.—If the Secretary does not provide a response in accordance with clause (i), the waiver shall be considered approved, unless the approval is specifically prohibited by this chapter.

(iii)Notice of denial.—On denial of a waiver request under clause (i)(III), the Secretary shall provide a copy of the waiver request and a description of the reasons for the denial to the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry of the Senate.

(2)

(A) The Secretary may conduct demonstration projects to test improved consistency or coordination between the supplemental nutrition assistance program employment and training program and the Job Opportunities and Basic Skills program under title IV of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 601 et seq.).

(B) Notwithstanding paragraph (1), the Secretary may, as part of a project authorized under this paragraph, waive requirements under section 2015(d) of this title to permit a State to operate an employment and training program for supplemental nutrition assistance program recipients on the same terms and conditions under which the State operates its Job Opportunities and Basic Skills program for recipients of aid to families with dependent children under part F 1

1 See References in Text note below.

of title IV of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 681 et seq.). Any work experience program conducted as part of the project shall be conducted in conformity with section 482(f) 1 of such Act (42 U.S.C. 682(f)).

(C) A State seeking such a waiver shall provide assurances that the resulting employment and training program shall meet the requirements of subsections (a)(19) and (g) of section 402 1 of such Act (42 U.S.C. 602) (but not including the provision of transitional benefits under clauses (ii) through (vii) of section 402(g)(1)(A) 1) and sections 481 through 487 1 of such Act (42 U.S.C. 681 through 687). Each reference to “aid to families with dependent children” in such sections shall be deemed to be a reference to supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits for purposes of the demonstration project.

(D) Notwithstanding the other provisions of this paragraph, participation in an employment and training activity in which supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits are converted to cash shall occur only with the consent of the participant.

(E) For the purposes of any project conducted under this paragraph, the provisions of this chapter affecting the rights of recipients may be waived to the extent necessary to conform to the provisions of section 402, and sections 481 through 487,1 of the Social Security Act.

(F) At least 60 days prior to granting final approval of a project under this paragraph, the Secretary shall publish the terms and conditions for any demonstration project conducted under the paragraph for public comment in the Federal Register and shall notify the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry of the Senate.

(G) Waivers may be granted under this paragraph to conduct projects at any one time in a total of up to 60 project areas (or parts of project areas), as such areas are defined in regulations in effect on January 1, 1990.

(H) A waiver for a change in program rules may be granted under this paragraph only for a demonstration project that has been approved by the Secretary, that will be evaluated according to criteria prescribed by the Secretary, and that will be in operation for no more than 4 years.

(I) The Secretary may not grant a waiver under this paragraph on or after August 22, 1996. Any reference in this paragraph to a provision of title IV of the Social Security Act [42 U.S.C. 601 et seq.] shall be deemed to be a reference to such provision as in effect on the day before August 22, 1996.

(d) Employment initiatives program

(1) Election to participate

(A) In general

(B) Requirement

(2) Procedure

(A) In general

(B) Payment

(i) cash assistance under this subsection shall be considered to be an allotment; and

(ii) each household receiving cash benefits under this subsection shall not receive any other supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits during the period for which the cash assistance is provided.

(D) Additional paymentsEach State that has elected to carry out an employment initiatives program under paragraph (1) shall—

(i) increase the cash benefits provided to each household participating in the program in the State under this subsection to compensate for any State or local sales tax that may be collected on purchases of food by the household, unless the Secretary determines on the basis of information provided by the State that the increase is unnecessary on the basis of the limited nature of the items subject to the State or local sales tax; and

(ii) pay the cost of any increase in cash benefits required by clause (i).

(3) EligibilityA household shall be eligible to receive cash benefits under paragraph (2) if an adult member of the household—

(A) has worked in unsubsidized employment for not less than the preceding 90 days;

(B) has earned not less than $350 per month from the employment referred to in subparagraph (A) for not less than the preceding 90 days;

(C)

(i) is receiving benefits under a State program funded under part A of title IV of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 601 et seq.); or

(ii) was receiving benefits under a State program funded under part A of title IV of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 601 et seq.) at the time the member first received cash benefits under this subsection and is no longer eligible for the State program because of earned income;

(D) is continuing to earn not less than $350 per month from the employment referred to in subparagraph (A); and

(E) elects to receive cash benefits in lieu of supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits under this subsection.

(4) Evaluation

(e) Study and report to Congressional committees of effect of reduction of benefits

(f) Demonstration projects for development and use of intelligent benefit cards to pay benefits

(g) Study of effectiveness of employment and training programsIn order to assess the effectiveness of the employment and training programs established under section 2015(d) of this title in placing individuals into the work force and withdrawing such individuals from the supplemental nutrition assistance program, the Secretary is authorized to carry out studies comparing the pre- and post-program labor force participation, wage rates, family income, level of receipt of supplemental nutrition assistance program and other transfer payments, and other relevant information, for samples of participants in such employment and training programs as compared to the appropriate control or comparison groups that did not participate in such programs. Such studies shall, to the maximum extent possible—

(1) collect such data for up to 3 years after the individual has completed the employment and training program; and

(2) yield results that can be generalized to the national program as a whole.

The results of such studies and reports shall be considered in developing or updating the performance standards required under section 2015 of this title.

(h) Demonstration projects for vehicle exclusion limitsThe Secretary shall conduct a sufficient number of demonstration projects to evaluate the effects, in both rural and urban areas, of including in financial resources under section 2014(g) of this title the fair market value of licensed vehicles to the extent the value of each vehicle exceeds $4,500, but excluding the value of—

(1) any licensed vehicle that is used to produce earned income, necessary for transportation of an elderly or physically disabled household member, or used as the household’s home; and

(2) one licensed vehicle used to obtain, continue, or seek employment (including travel to and from work), used to pursue employment-related education or training, or used to secure food or the benefits of the supplemental nutrition assistance program.

(i) Testing resource accumulation

(j) Demonstration projects directed at benefit trafficking

(k) Pilot projects to evaluate health and nutrition promotion in the supplemental nutrition assistance program

(1) In generalThe Secretary shall carry out, under such terms and conditions as the Secretary considers to be appropriate, pilot projects to develop and test methods—

(A) of using the supplemental nutrition assistance program to improve the dietary and health status of households eligible for or participating in the supplemental nutrition assistance program; and

(B) to reduce overweight, obesity (including childhood obesity), and associated co-morbidities in the United States.

(2) Grants

(A) In general

(B) Application

(i) identification of a low-income target audience that corresponds to individuals living in households with incomes at or below 185 percent of the poverty level;

(ii) incorporation of a scientifically based strategy that is designed to improve diet quality through more healthful food purchases, preparation, or consumption;

(iii) a commitment to a pilot project that allows for a rigorous outcome evaluation, including data collection;

(iv) strategies to improve the nutritional value of food served during school hours and during after-school hours;

(v) innovative ways to provide significant improvement to the health and wellness of children;

(vi) other criteria, as determined by the Secretary.

(D) Use of funds

(3) ProjectsPilot projects carried out under paragraph (1) may include projects to determine whether healthier food purchases by and healthier diets among households participating in the supplemental nutrition assistance program result from projects that—

(A) increase the supplemental nutrition assistance purchasing power of the participating households by providing increased supplemental nutrition assistance program benefit allotments to the participating households;

(B) increase access to farmers 2

2 So in original. Probably should be “farmers’ ”.

markets by participating households through the electronic redemption of supplemental nutrition assistance program benefits at farmers’ markets;

(C) provide incentives to authorized supplemental nutrition assistance program retailers to increase the availability of healthy foods to participating households;

(D) subject authorized supplemental nutrition assistance program retailers to stricter retailer requirements with respect to carrying and stocking healthful foods;

(E) provide incentives at the point of purchase to encourage households participating in the supplemental nutrition assistance program to purchase fruits, vegetables, or other healthful foods; or

(F) provide to participating households integrated communication and education programs, including the provision of funding for a portion of a school-based nutrition coordinator to implement a broad nutrition action plan and parent nutrition education programs in elementary schools, separately or in combination with pilot projects carried out under subparagraphs (A) through (E).

(4) Evaluation and reporting

(A) Evaluation

(i) Independent evaluation(I) In general(II) Requirement

(ii) Costs

(B) ReportingNot later than 90 days after the last day of fiscal year 2009 and each fiscal year thereafter until the completion of the last evaluation under subparagraph (A), the Secretary shall submit to the Committee on Agriculture of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Agriculture, Nutrition, and Forestry of the Senate a report that includes a description of—

(i) the status of each pilot project;

(ii) the results of the evaluation completed during the previous fiscal year; and

(iii) to the maximum extent practicable—(I) the impact of the pilot project on appropriate health, nutrition, and associated behavioral outcomes among households participating in the pilot project;(II) baseline information relevant to the stated goals and desired outcomes of the pilot project; and(III) equivalent information about similar or identical measures among control or comparison groups that did not participate in the pilot project.

(5) Funding

(A) Authorization of appropriations

(B) Mandatory funding

(l) Cooperation with program research and evaluationSubject to the requirements of this chapter, including protections under section 2020(e)(8) of this title, States, State agencies, local agencies, institutions, facilities such as data consortiums, and contractors participating in programs authorized under this chapter shall—

(1) cooperate with officials and contractors acting on behalf of the Secretary in the conduct of evaluations and studies under this chapter; and

(2) submit information at such time and in such manner as the Secretary may require.

(m) Evaluation of child support enforcement cooperation requirements

(1) In generalThe Secretary, in consultation with the Secretary of Health and Human Services, shall conduct an independent evaluation of a representative sample of States—

(A) to assess the implementation and impact of the eligibility requirements described in subsections (l) through (n) of section 2015 of this title in States that have formerly implemented or continue to implement those requirements, and the feasibility of implementing those requirements in other States;

(B) to assess the factors that contributed to the decision of States that formerly implemented the eligibility requirements described in each of subsections (l) through (n) of section 2015 of this title to cease such implementation;

(C) to review alternatives to the eligibility requirements described in each of subsections (l) through (n) of section 2015 of this title that are used by other States to assist participants in the supplemental nutrition assistance program to make or receive child support payments and the effectiveness of those alternatives; and

(D) to evaluate the costs and benefits to households and to State agencies, of requiring State agencies to implement each of the eligibility requirements described in subsections (l) through (n) of section 2015 of this title.

(2) EvaluationThe evaluation under paragraph (1) shall include, to the maximum extent practicable, an assessment of—

(A) the manner in which applicable State agencies implement and enforce the eligibility requirements described in subparagraph (A) of such paragraph, including—

(i) the procedures used by each State to determine cooperation, to sanction participants for failure to cooperate, and to determine good cause for noncooperation under each of subsections (l) through (n) of section 2015 of this title; and

(ii) the manner in which each State aligns the procedures for implementing those eligibility requirements with procedures for implementing other Federal programs that require cooperation with child support enforcement, including the program of block grants to States for temporary assistance for needy families established under part A of title IV of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 601 et seq.), the Medicaid program under title XIX of the Social Security Act (42 U.S.C. 1396 et seq.), and programs carried out under the Child Care and Development Block Grant Act of 1990 (42 U.S.C. 9857 et seq.);

(B) the Federal, State, and local costs associated with implementing those eligibility requirements, including costs incurred under this chapter and by child support enforcement agencies for personnel, technology upgrades, and other costs;

(C) the effect of those eligibility requirements on the establishment of new child support orders, the establishment of paternity, changes in child support payments to custodial households, and changes in arrears owed on child support orders;

(D) with respect to the eligibility requirements under each of subsections (l) through (n) of section 2015 of this title—

(i) the number of individuals subject to those requirements;

(ii) the number of individuals in each State who meet those requirements; and

(iii) the number of individuals in each State who fail to meet those requirements;

(E) the number of individuals in each State for whom good cause for noncooperation has been found under section 2015(l)(2) of this title;

(F) the impact of those eligibility requirements on the supplemental nutrition assistance program eligibility, benefit levels, food security, income, and economic stability of—

(i) individuals subject to those requirements;

(ii) the household members of those individuals, including children; and

(iii) households with nontraditional family structures, including a household in which a grandparent is the primary caretaker of a grandchild of the grandparent.

(3) State agency cooperation

(4) Report

(n) Longitudinal data for research

(1) In general

(2) Purpose

(3) Requirements for databasesPrior to the approval of State agencies to establish longitudinal databases under paragraph (1), the Secretary shall—

(A) identify features that shall be standard across States such as database format to facilitate use of longitudinal databases established under paragraph (1) for research purposes;

(B) identify features of longitudinal databases established under paragraph (1) that may vary across States;

(C) identify a procedure for States operating longitudinal databases under paragraph (1) to use a unique identifier to provide relevant information on household members who receive benefits under the supplemental nutrition assistance program for the purpose of comparing participation data in multiple participating States over time while protecting participant privacy;

(D) establish the manner in which data security and privacy protections, as required by Federal law and consistent with other appropriate practices, shall be implemented and maintained;

(E) provide direction to State agencies on the responsibilities of and funding arrangements for State agencies and any State contractors (including entities providing technical assistance) relating to the establishment and operation of a longitudinal database;

(F) provide a description of the documentation that States shall submit to the Secretary prior to allowing researchers access to a longitudinal database;

(G) consult with other Federal research agencies, including the Bureau of the Census;

(H) consult with States that have already established databases used for purposes similar to the purposes outlined in this subsection; and

(I) identify any other requirements determined appropriate by the Secretary.

(4) Included data

(A) In generalSubject to subparagraph (B), each longitudinal database established under paragraph (1)—

(i) shall include monthly information about households and members of households that receive benefits under the supplemental nutrition assistance program in the participating State taken from existing information collected by the State agency including, if available,—(I) demographic characteristics;(II) income and financial resources (as described in section 2014(g) of this title);(III) employment status;(IV) household circumstances, such as deductible expenses; and(V) the amount of the monthly allotment received under the supplemental nutrition assistance program; and

(ii) may include information from other State data sources such as—(I) earnings and employment data from the State department of labor;(II) health insurance program data; or(III) data from participation in other programs administered by the State.

(B) Data protectionAny State that establishes a longitudinal database under paragraph (1) shall, in accordance with all applicable Federal and State privacy standards and requirements—

(i) protect the privacy of information about each member of each household that receives benefits under the supplemental nutrition assistance program in such State by ensuring that no personally identifiable information (including social security number, home address, or contact information) is included in the longitudinal database; and

(ii) make the data under this paragraph available to researchers and the Secretary.

(5) ApprovalThe Secretary shall approve the establishment of longitudinal databases under paragraph (1) in States that—

(A) meet the requirements for databases under paragraph (3) and (4)(B);

(B) reflect a range of participant numbers, demographics, operational structures, and geographic regions; and

(C) have the capacity to provide on a periodic and ongoing basis household and participant data derived from the eligibility system and other data sources of the State.

(6) Grants

(A) In general

(B) Method of awarding grants

(7) Report

(A) In general

(B) ContentsThe report required under subparagraph (A) shall describe—

(i) the cost of expanding implementation of longitudinal databases with consistent data to every State;

(ii) the challenges and benefits of using State longitudinal databases with consistent data; and

(iii) alternatives to expanding implementation of longitudinal databases with consistent data to every State that may achieve similar research outcomes and the advantages and disadvantages of those alternatives.

(8) Effect

(9) FundingOf the funds made available under section 2027 of this title, the Secretary shall use to carry out this subsection—

(A) $20,000,000 for fiscal year 2019 to remain available through fiscal year 2021; and

(B) $5,000,000 for fiscal year 2022 and each fiscal year thereafter.

(Pub. L. 88–525, § 17, as added Pub. L. 93–86, § 3(n), Aug. 10, 1973, 87 Stat. 248; amended Pub. L. 95–113, title XIII, § 1301, Sept. 29, 1977, 91 Stat. 977; Pub. L. 95–400, Sept. 30, 1978, 92 Stat. 856; Pub. L. 96–249, title I, §§ 130–132(a), 133, May 26, 1980, 94 Stat. 367, 368; Pub. L. 97–98, title XIII, §§ 1328–1330, Dec. 22, 1981, 95 Stat. 1289, 1290; Pub. L. 97–253, title I, §§ 152(c), 181, 182, 190(d), Sept. 8, 1982, 96 Stat. 776, 784, 785, 787; Pub. L. 99–114, § 4, Oct. 1, 1985, 99 Stat. 488; Pub. L. 99–157, § 2, Nov. 15, 1985, 99 Stat. 818; Pub. L. 99–182, § 2, Dec. 13, 1985, 99 Stat. 1173; Pub. L. 99–198, title XV, § 1540, Dec. 23, 1985, 99 Stat. 1588; Pub. L. 100–435, title V, §§ 504, 505, Sept. 19, 1988, 102 Stat. 1673; Pub. L. 101–624, title XVII, §§ 1729(b), 1731, 1754–1759, Nov. 28, 1990, 104 Stat. 3790, 3798–3800, 3802; Pub. L. 102–237, title IX, § 941(8), Dec. 13, 1991, 105 Stat. 1893; Pub. L. 103–66, title XIII, § 13925, Aug. 10, 1993, 107 Stat. 675; Pub. L. 103–225, title II, § 204, Mar. 25, 1994, 108 Stat. 109; Pub. L. 104–127, title IV, § 401(c), (d), Apr. 4, 1996, 110 Stat. 1026; Pub. L. 104–193, title I, § 109(d), title VIII, §§ 815(b)(1), 850–852, 854(c)(2), Aug. 22, 1996, 110 Stat. 2169, 2317, 2336–2338, 2342; Pub. L. 105–18, title VII, [(b)], June 12, 1997, 111 Stat. 217; Pub. L. 105–277, div. A, § 101(f) [title VIII, § 405(d)(2)(C), (f)(2)(C)], Oct. 21, 1998, 112 Stat. 2681–337, 2681–418, 2681–429; Pub. L. 107–171, title IV, §§ 4112(b)(4), 4116(b), 4122(b), 4123(a), May 13, 2002, 116 Stat. 313, 316, 324; Pub. L. 110–234, title IV, §§ 4001(b), 4002(a)(9), 4115(b)(12), 4141, 4406(a)(5), May 22, 2008, 122 Stat. 1092, 1094, 1108, 1117, 1141; Pub. L. 110–246, § 4(a), title IV, §§ 4001(b), 4002(a)(9), 4115(b)(12), 4141, 4406(a)(5), June 18, 2008, 122 Stat. 1664, 1853, 1855, 1869, 1879, 1902; Pub. L. 113–79, title IV, §§ 4022(b)(3), 4023, Feb. 7, 2014, 128 Stat. 808, 809; Pub. L. 113–128, title V, § 512(l)(3), July 22, 2014, 128 Stat. 1709; Pub. L. 115–334, title IV, §§ 4005(e), 4014, 4015(a), 4022(7), Dec. 20, 2018, 132 Stat. 4634, 4643–4645, 4653.)